Early Motherhood Can Lead to a Major Lifetime Wage Penalty While Delaying Pregnancy Pays Off Financially

New research suggests that when a woman becomes a mother can have a powerful and lasting impact on her financial future. A large, long-term study has found that women who have children early in their careers earn significantly less over their lifetimes compared to women who delay motherhood, have an abortion, or never become pregnant. The findings add new data to ongoing conversations about reproductive autonomy, career development, and economic inequality.

The study was co-led by Eden King, the Lynette S. Autrey Professor of Psychology at Rice University, and Nicola Lawrence-Thomas, a lecturer in work psychology at the University of Sheffield. It is one of the first research efforts to directly compare long-term earnings across different early reproductive paths, rather than simply comparing mothers to non-mothers.

A Long View on Women’s Earnings and Reproductive Choices

To understand how early pregnancy decisions shape careers over time, the researchers analyzed more than 40 years of national survey data. The dataset followed nearly 6,000 women from adolescence into midlife, allowing the team to examine income patterns over a roughly 30-year span.

What makes this research stand out is its scope. Instead of focusing only on short-term income changes or immediate career setbacks, the study tracked salary growth, cumulative earnings, and long-term economic trajectories. This approach revealed differences that continue to widen over decades.

The results were striking. Women who became mothers early in their careers earned between $495,000 and $556,000 less over 30 years than women who either delayed motherhood, had an abortion, or never became pregnant. These differences remained consistent even after accounting for factors such as age, race, marital status, education level, and hours worked.

Across every model used in the analysis, early motherhood was associated with the lowest lifetime earnings.

Comparing Different Reproductive Paths

The study grouped women into several categories based on their early reproductive experiences. These included women who became mothers early, women who had an abortion early in adulthood, and women who did not become pregnant during that period.

One of the most important findings was that women who had an abortion and women who never became pregnant showed very similar wage trajectories. Both groups earned substantially more over time than women who entered motherhood early. This challenges assumptions that abortion leads to negative economic outcomes and instead suggests that it may help preserve career continuity and earning potential during critical early career years.

According to the researchers, early adulthood is a period when education, job mobility, and skill-building tend to accelerate. Interruptions during this phase can have lasting consequences, especially when income growth is typically fastest.

Understanding the Motherhood Wage Penalty

The idea of a motherhood penalty is not new. For decades, researchers have documented how mothers, particularly those with young children, often face lower pay, fewer promotions, and limited job opportunities compared to childless women and men.

This study reinforces that pattern and highlights how timing matters. Early motherhood appears to amplify the penalty by disrupting career momentum at a point when long-term trajectories are still being established.

Several factors contribute to this outcome. Women who become mothers early are more likely to experience career interruptions, reduced job mobility, and slower accumulation of experience. Even when they return to work, they may face constraints on working hours or advancement opportunities, limiting long-term earnings growth.

Education also plays a critical role. The analysis suggests that women who had abortions were more likely to remain in school, complete higher levels of education, and sustain early career progress. These advantages compound over time, leading to higher lifetime earnings.

Why This Research Matters Right Now

The study arrives at a moment when reproductive rights and access to care are changing across the United States. The idea for the project was partly sparked by language in the 2022 Supreme Court decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, which claimed that access to reproductive autonomy does not affect women’s economic standing.

The researchers wanted to know whether data actually supported that assertion. Their findings suggest that reproductive decisions, particularly those made early in adulthood, are closely tied to economic mobility and career outcomes.

By including abortion as a distinct category rather than ignoring it or combining it with other outcomes, the study offers a more complete picture of women’s economic lives. Pregnancy does not always lead to motherhood, and treating abortion as invisible in research can distort conclusions about women’s work and earnings.

Policy Implications and Possible Solutions

The findings point to several ways policymakers and employers could help reduce the long-term economic disadvantages associated with early motherhood.

One key area is supporting reproductive planning. Access to contraception, comprehensive health insurance that covers reproductive care, and assistance navigating care in restrictive states can help women align pregnancy timing with their educational and career goals.

Another area is supporting working parents. Policies such as paid parental leave, subsidized child care, and job-protected leave programs can reduce the financial fallout of early motherhood. When women are able to maintain stronger ties to the workforce during and after pregnancy, they are better positioned to preserve career continuity.

Without these supports, the researchers argue, women are likely to continue facing unequal access to economic resources compared to men.

Broader Context on Women, Work, and Family

This study fits into a larger body of research showing that structural factors, not just individual choices, shape women’s careers. Workplace culture, state-level policies, and social expectations around caregiving all influence how motherhood affects earnings.

International comparisons also suggest that countries with stronger family-supportive policies tend to have smaller motherhood penalties. Paid leave, affordable child care, and flexible work arrangements can help narrow wage gaps and improve long-term outcomes for parents.

At the same time, the study highlights the importance of including understudied experiences, such as abortion, in economic research. Ignoring these realities can lead to incomplete or misleading conclusions about how women’s lives unfold over time.

A Clear Message from Decades of Data

The takeaway from this research is straightforward. Early motherhood is linked to a substantial and lasting wage penalty, while delaying motherhood is associated with significantly higher lifetime earnings. These patterns persist even when controlling for background factors and work hours, suggesting that timing alone plays a major role.

By examining women’s lives across decades, the study underscores how early reproductive decisions can shape financial futures in ways that are difficult to reverse. It also reinforces the idea that reproductive autonomy, workplace policy, and economic opportunity are deeply interconnected.

Research paper: Economic trajectories of women: The relationship between abortion and women’s salary growth, Journal of Applied Psychology (2025) – https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001348