Gender Stereotypes Reflect the Division of Labor Between Women and Men Across Nations

Gender stereotypes often feel stubbornly persistent, even as societies change. A major new international study suggests there is a clear reason for that persistence: our beliefs about women and men closely follow the roles they actually occupy in homes, workplaces, and positions of power. Researchers from Northwestern University and the University of Bern in Switzerland have conducted the first large-scale study to examine how gender stereotypes have evolved — and stayed the same — across multiple nations over a 30-year period.

The research, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, compares public opinions collected in 1995 with new data gathered in 2023. By analyzing attitudes across 40 countries, the study provides one of the most comprehensive looks to date at how people around the world think about gender and why those beliefs endure.

A First-of-Its-Kind Global Comparison

At the heart of the study is a simple but powerful question: Where do gender stereotypes come from? To answer it, the researchers relied on public opinion surveys that asked people to describe typical traits of women and men in their societies.

The original dataset came from a Gallup poll conducted in 1995, covering 22 nations. In 2023, the researchers replicated the same survey questions and expanded the scope to include 40 nations, allowing them to track changes — or stability — in beliefs over three decades.

Across every country and at both time points, a consistent pattern emerged. Respondents described men as more agentic, meaning ambitious, competitive, assertive, and goal-oriented. Women, meanwhile, were described as more communal, associated with warmth, kindness, empathy, and caregiving.

This pattern appeared regardless of culture, economic development, or geographic region.

Why the Agentic Male Stereotype Persists

At first glance, these findings may seem surprising. Over the past several decades, women’s participation in the paid workforce has increased dramatically around the world. Women are also more likely than ever to earn college degrees and enter professional careers.

So why hasn’t the stereotype shifted more?

According to the researchers, the answer lies in who occupies the most visible and high-status roles. Men continue to be overrepresented in positions such as CEOs of large corporations, top executives, and leaders in finance, defense, and industry. These roles strongly signal agency — decisiveness, authority, and ambition — reinforcing the perception that men are naturally agentic.

Even when women reach leadership positions, they are more likely to do so in organizations with communal missions, such as nonprofit groups, educational institutions, or social service organizations. As a result, women’s leadership is often interpreted through a communal lens rather than an agentic one.

Men’s dominance in occupations requiring physical strength, risk-taking, and courage — including firefighters, police officers, and soldiers — further strengthens the global association between men and agency.

Why Women Are Seen as More Communal

The communal stereotype of women also follows observable social patterns. The study found that this belief was stronger in countries with greater occupational segregation, where women are concentrated in caregiving and people-oriented jobs such as teaching, nursing, and childcare.

In other words, people are not imagining these traits out of nowhere. They are generalizing from what they see around them every day. When women are more likely to work in roles centered on care and interpersonal support, societies come to view those qualities as inherently feminine.

This same division of labor often extends into the home, where women still tend to take on a larger share of childcare and household responsibilities. Together, these patterns reinforce the idea that women are naturally more nurturing and relationship-focused.

Competence Stereotypes Are Changing

Not all gender stereotypes showed the same level of persistence. Beliefs about competence, including intelligence and creativity, have shifted significantly over time.

As women’s educational attainment has increased, public opinion has moved toward viewing women and men as equally competent. In countries where women earn college degrees at similar or higher rates than men, stereotypes about intellectual ability are far more balanced.

This finding highlights an important point: stereotypes can and do change when social realities change in visible ways.

Political Power and an Unexpected Finding

One of the study’s more nuanced findings relates to women’s political representation. In countries where women held greater political power or were more likely to lead government agencies, people tended to attribute more communal traits to women, but not more agentic ones.

The likely explanation is role-based. Women in political leadership are often appointed to ministries or agencies focused on family, children, health, or social welfare, rather than finance, defense, or national security. Even in positions of authority, women are therefore seen as occupying the communal version of leadership, which reinforces existing stereotypes rather than challenging them.

Why Gender Stereotypes Matter

The researchers emphasize that gender stereotypes are not just abstract ideas. They have real consequences for individuals and societies.

On a personal level, stereotypes can lead to unfair judgments of people who do not fit traditional expectations. A woman excelling as an aerospace engineer or a man working as a nurturing preschool teacher may face skepticism, disapproval, or social pressure simply because their roles conflict with gender norms.

At a societal level, stereotypes can limit opportunity and waste talent. When people assume certain traits based on gender, they may overlook qualified individuals or discourage others from pursuing careers that do not align with expectations.

While stereotypes can sometimes serve as mental shortcuts in everyday life, they become harmful when they are treated as fixed truths rather than reflections of current social arrangements.

What the Study Suggests About Reducing Stereotypes

One of the study’s central conclusions is that gender stereotypes will only weaken when gender roles become more similar. Changing beliefs without changing structures is unlikely to succeed.

The researchers point to several policies and trends that could help shift both roles and perceptions:

Parental leave for fathers, encouraging men to take on caregiving responsibilities.
Improved childcare systems, allowing mothers to maintain demanding careers.
Greater acceptance of men in female-dominated care professions, such as early childhood education.
Continued automation of physically demanding jobs, which has already expanded opportunities for women.
Strong government policies that challenge discrimination and promote equal opportunity.

Each of these changes makes gender roles more flexible and visible, which in turn reshapes how people think about women and men.

A Broader Perspective on Gender and Social Roles

This research fits within a broader framework known as social role theory, which argues that stereotypes arise from observing who does what in society. Rather than being myths or pure prejudice, many stereotypes are overgeneralizations of real patterns.

That does not make them harmless — but it does suggest that lasting change depends on structural shifts, not just attitude campaigns.

As women and men increasingly share similar responsibilities at work, in leadership, and at home, beliefs about gender are likely to follow. Until then, stereotypes will continue to mirror the division of labor that people see around them every day.

Research paper:
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510180122